The multicultural evolution of beauty in facial surgery.

The concept of facial beauty has been defined in a variety of ways dating back to ancient times, and while the definition continues to develop, it has become clear that beauty crosses ethnic boundaries and has a significant cultural and economic impact. Subconsciously, beauty is perceived by humans as a sign of favorable genes and increased fertility, both of which play a role in mate selection. As a result, perceived attractive features that are subconsciously selected evolve much more quickly than other naturally selected characteristics. Additionally, the beautiful are more likely to get better grades in school, to be hired for a job, to receive higher salaries, and to be viewed as nicer, smarter and healthier. While beauty was once stated to be ‘‘in the eye of the beholder’’, more recent studies have suggested that beauty is an objective, quantifiable quality. The ancient Greeks began the quest for a universal standard of beauty and believed it was represented by the ‘‘golden ratio’’ also known as ‘‘phi,’’ which was thought to represent perfect harmony. In nature, the ratio appears in the spiral of seashells, in the growth rate of the human mandible, and in the DNA antihelix. Examples of its application include Egyptian art and architecture, the Fibonacci sequence, and geometric shapes such as the pentagon and decagon. Many still believe that phi corresponds to facial beauty as well. However, others have found it to be inexact. For example, Marquardt created an ‘‘ideal’’ facial standard based off of phi, and not only did it apply poorly to people of non-European/Caucasian descent but it also masculinized Caucasian women. The concept of beauty as a formula continued to evolve with the artists of the Renaissance period. Through Da Vinci and his contemporaries, the neoclassical ideals were largely based on phi. The art anatomists of the 17th and 19th